Discrimination and Disparities Page 17

  16. William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), p. 195.

  17. Horace Mann Bond, A Study of Factors Involved in the Identification and Encouragement of Unusual Academic Talent among Underprivileged Populations (U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, January 1967), p. 147. [Contract No. SAE 8028, Project No. 5–0859].

  18. Ibid.

  19. See, for example, Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), pp. 188–189, 247; David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto, Chapter V; Theodore Hershberg and Henry Williams, “Mulattoes and Blacks: Intra-Group Differences and Social Stratification in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia,” Philadelphia: Work, Space, Family, and Group Experience in the Nineteenth Century, edited by Theodore Hershberg (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 392–434.

  20. Stephen Birmingham, Certain People: America’s Black Elite (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1977), pp. 196–197. As a personal note, I delivered groceries to people in that building during my teenage years, entering through the service entrance in the basement, rather than through the canopied front entrance with its uniformed doorman and ornate lobby. My own home was in a tenement apartment some distance away.

  21. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City, revised and enlarged edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), pp. 73–74; James R. Grossman, “African-American Migration to Chicago,” Ethnic Chicago, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones, pp. 323, 332, 333–334; Henri Florette, Black Migration: Movement North, 1900–1920 (Garden City, New York: Anchor Press, 1975), pp. 96–97; Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), p. 168.

  22. James R. Grossman, “African-American Migration to Chicago,” Ethnic Chicago, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones, pp. 323, 330, 332, 333–334; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, pp. 186–187, 332; Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago, p. 168; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition (New York: Macmillan, 1957), p. 284; Henri Florette, Black Migration, pp. 96–97; Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto, Negro New York 1890–1930 (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), pp. 43–44; Ivan H. Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare Among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), Figure 1 (after p. 100); W.E.B. Du Bois, The Black North in 1901: A Social Study (New York: Arno Press, 1969), p. 25.

  23. James R. Grossman, “African-American Migration to Chicago,” Ethnic Chicago, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones, p. 331; See also Ethan Michaeli, The Defender: How the Legendary Black Newspaper Changed America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), p. 84.

  24. Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, pp. 186–187; James R. Grossman, “African-American Migration to Chicago,” Ethnic Chicago, fourth edition, edited by Melvin G. Holli and Peter d’A. Jones, pp. 323, 330; St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 73–74.

  25. E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, p. 643.

  26. According to Professor Steven Pinker, “the North-South difference is not a by-product of the white-black difference. Southern whites are more violent than northern whites, and southern blacks are more violent than northern blacks.” Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011), p. 94.

  27. Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North: The Battle over Northern School Segregation, 1865–1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), pp. 2–5, 61–62; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, p. 250; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, p. 441.

  28. Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, pp. 64, 65, 300–301; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, pp. 250–251.

  29. Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North, pp. 128, 129; Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape, pp. 57, 64–65, 75–76, 80, 178–179.

  30. Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North, pp. 130–131; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, p. 147.

  31. Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), p. 198.

  32. Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites: A Social and Cultural History of Black San Francisco (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980), pp. 50, 75, 77, 97.

  33. Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush, p. 52.

  34. Ibid., p. 55.

  35. Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites, p. 165.

  36. Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush, pp. 95–96, 152, 170; E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, p. 270; Douglas Henry Daniels, Pioneer Urbanites, pp. 171–175.

  37. E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, p. 270.

  38. Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), pp. 106–107, 129–130.

  39. William Julius Wilson, More Than Just Race: Being Black and Poor in the Inner City (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2009), pp. 1–2.

  40. Walter E. Williams, Race & Economics: How Much Can Be Blamed on Discrimination (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2011), p. 117.

  41. See Abbot Emerson Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America 1607–1776 (Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith, 1965), pp. 3–4.

  42. E. Franklin Frazier, The Negro in the United States, revised edition, pp. 22–26; John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of American Negroes, second edition (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947), pp. 70–72.

  43. Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature, p. 97.

  44. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 44–45.

  45. David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto, pp. 35, 69, 102, 200.

  46. Ibid., p. 160.

  47. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (New York: Schocken Books, 1967), pp. 7, 41–42, 305–306.

  48. Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1970), p. 99; David M. Katzman, Before the Ghetto, pp. 35, 37, 138, 139, 160; St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis, revised and enlarged edition, pp. 44–45; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color, p. 125.

  49. Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North, p. 3.

  50. Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives, p. 99.

  51. Davison M. Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North, p. 3.

  52. Ibid., pp. 155–156.

  53. Ibid., pp. 154.

  54. See, for example, Jacqueline A. Stefkovich and Terrence Leas, “A Legal History of Desegregation in Higher Education,” Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 63, No. 3 (Summer 1994), pp. 409–410.

  55. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), at 495.

  56. Ibid., at 494.

  57. T. Rees Shapiro, “Vanished Glory of an All-Black High School,” Washington Post, January 19, 2014, p. B6.

  58. Henry S. Robinson, “The M Street High School, 1891–1916,” Records of the Columbia Historical Society, Washington, D.C., Vol. LI (1984), p. 122; Report of the Board of Trustees of Public Schools of the District of Columbia to the Commissioners of the District of Columbia: 1898–99 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900), pp. 7, 11.

  59. Mary Gibson Hundley, The Dunbar Story: 1870–1955 (New York: Vantage Press, 1965), p. 75.

  60. Ibid., p. 78. Mary Church Terrell, “History of the High School for Negroes in Washington,” Journal of Negro History, Vol. 2, No. 3 (July 1917), p. 262.

  61. Louise Daniel Hutchison, Anna J. Cooper: A Voice from the South (Washington: The Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981), p. 62; Jervis Anderson,
“A Very Special Monument,” The New Yorker, March 20, 1978, p. 100; Alison Stewart, First Class: The Legacy of Dunbar, America’s First Black Public High School (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2013), p. 99; “The Talented Black Scholars Whom No White University Would Hire,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, No. 58 (Winter 2007/2008), p. 81.

  62. Tucker Carlson, “From Ivy League to NBA,” Policy Review, Spring 1993, p. 36.

  63. Daniel Bergner, “Class Warfare,” New York Times Magazine, September 7, 2014, p. 62.

  64. See, for example, Alex Kotlowitz, “Where Is Everyone Going?” Chicago Tribune, March 10, 2002; Mary Mitchell, “Middle-Class Neighborhood Fighting to Keep Integrity,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 10, 2005, p. 14; Jessica Garrison and Ted Rohrlich, “A Not-So-Welcome Mat,” Los Angeles Times, June 17, 2007, p. A1; Paul Elias, “Influx of Black Renters Raises Tension in Bay Area,” The Associated Press, December 31, 2008; Mick Dumke, “Unease in Chatham, But Who’s at Fault?” New York Times, April 29, 2011, p. A23; James Bovard, “Raising Hell in Subsidized Housing,” Wall Street Journal, August 18, 2011, p. A15; Frank Main, “Crime Felt from CHA Relocations,” Chicago Sun-Times, April 5, 2012, p. 18.

  65. Alex Kotlowitz, “Where Is Everyone Going?” Chicago Tribune, March 10, 2002.

  66. Mary Mitchell, “Middle-Class Neighborhood Fighting to Keep Integrity,” Chicago Sun-Times, November 10, 2005, p. 14.

  67. Mick Dumke, “Unease in Chatham, But Who’s at Fault?” New York Times, April 29, 2011, p. A23.

  68. Gary Gilbert, “People Must Get Involved in Section 8 Reform,” Contra Costa Times, November 18, 2006, p. F4.

  69. Geetha Suresh and Gennaro F. Vito, “Homicide Patterns and Public Housing: The Case of Louisville, KY (1989–2007), Homicide Studies, Vol. 13, No. 4 (November 2009), pp. 411–433.

  70. Alex Kotlowitz, “Where Is Everyone Going?” Chicago Tribune, March 10, 2002.

  71. Ibid.

  72. J.D. Vance, Hillbilly Elegy: A Memoir of a Family and Culture in Crisis (New York: HarperCollins, 2016), p. 140.

  73. Ibid., p. 141.

  74. Lisa Sanbonmatsu, Jeffrey R. Kling, Greg J. Duncan and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, “Neighborhoods and Academic Achievement: Results from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment,” The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 41, No. 4 (Fall, 2006), p. 682.

  75. Jens Ludwig, et al., “What Can We Learn about Neighborhood Effects from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment?” American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 114, No. 1 (July 2008), p. 148.

  76. Jeffrey R. Kling, et al., “Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects,” Econometrica, Vol. 75, No. 1 (January, 2007), p. 99.

  77. Jens Ludwig, et al., “Long-Term Neighborhood Effects on Low-Income Families: Evidence from Moving to Opportunity,” American Economic Review, Vol. 103, No. 3 (May 2013), p. 227.

  78. Lawrence F. Katz, Jeffrey R. Kling, and Jeffrey B. Liebman, “Moving to Opportunity in Boston: Early Results of a Randomized Mobility Experiment,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 116, No. 2 (May 2001), p. 648.

  79. Moving To Opportunity for Fair Housing Demonstration Program: Final Impacts Evaluation, Summary (Washington: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, November 2011), p. 3.

  80. “HUD’s Plan to Diversify Suburbs,” Investor’s Business Daily, July 23, 2013, p. A12.

  81. Ibid.

  82. See, for example, Raj Chetty, Nathaniel Hendren, and Lawrence F. Katz, “The Effects of Exposure to Better Neighborhoods on Children: New Evidence from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment,” American Economic Review, Vol. 106, No. 4 (April 2016), pp. 857, 899; Lawrence F. Katz, Jeffrey R. Kling, and Jeffrey B. Liebman, “Moving to Opportunity in Boston: Early Results of a Randomized Mobility Experiment,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 116, No. 2 (May 2001), pp. 607, 611–612, 648.

  83. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Sears, Roebuck & Company, 839 F.2d 302 at 311, 360; Peter Brimelow, “Spiral of Silence,” Forbes, May 25, 1992, p. 77.

  84. Paul Sperry, “Background Checks Are Racist?” Investor’s Business Daily, March 28, 2014, p. A1.

  85. Harry J. Holzer, Steven Raphael, and Michael A. Stoll, “Perceived Criminality, Criminal Background Checks, and the Racial Hiring Practices of Employers,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 49, No. 2 (October 2006), pp. 451–480.

  86. Jason L. Riley, “Jobless Blacks Should Cheer Background Checks,” Wall Street Journal, August 23, 2013, p. A11; Paul Sperry, “Background Checks Are Racist?” Investor’s Business Daily, March 28, 2014, p. A1.

  87. Douglas P. Woodward, “Locational Determinants of Japanese Manufacturing Start-ups in the United States,” Southern Economic Journal, Vol. 58, Issue 3 (January 1992), pp. 700, 706; Robert E. Cole and Donald R. Deskins, Jr., “Racial Factors in Site Location and Employment Patterns of Japanese Auto Firms in America,” California Management Review, Fall 1988, pp. 17–18.

  88. Philip S. Foner, “The Rise of the Black Industrial Working Class, 1915–1918,” African Americans in the U.S. Economy, edited by Cecilia A. Conrad, et al (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), pp. 38–43; Leo Alilunas, “Statutory Means of Impeding Emigration of the Negro,” Journal of Negro History, Vol. 22, No. 2 (April 1937), pp. 148–162; Carole Marks, “Lines of Communication, Recruitment Mechanisms, and the Great Migration of 1916–1918,” Social Problems, Vol. 31, No. 1 (October 1983), pp. 73–83; Theodore Kornweibel, Jr., Railroads in the African American Experience: A Photographic Journey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), pp. 174–180; Peter Gottlieb, Making Their Own Way: Southern Blacks’ Migration to Pittsburgh, 1916–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), pp. 55–59; Sean Dennis Cashman, America in the Twenties and Thirties: The Olympian Age of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (New York: New York University Press, 1989), p. 267.

  89. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 9–11; Milton C. Sernett, Bound for the Promised Land: African American Religion and the Great Migration (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), pp. 148–149.

  Chapter 4: The World of Numbers

  1. United States Commission on Civil Rights, Civil Rights and the Mortgage Crisis (Washington: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2009), p. 53.

  2. Ibid. See also page 61; Robert B. Avery and Glenn B. Canner, “New Information Reported under HMDA and Its Application in Fair Lending Enforcement,” Federal Reserve Bulletin, Summer 2005, p. 379; Wilhelmina A. Leigh and Danielle Huff, “African Americans and Homeownership: The Subprime Lending Experience, 1995 to 2007,” Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, November 2007, p. 5.

  3. Jim Wooten, “Answers to Credit Woes are Not in Black and White,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, November 6, 2007, p. 12A.

  4. Harold A. Black, M. Cary Collins and Ken B. Cyree, “Do Black-Owned Banks Discriminate Against Black Borrowers?” Journal of Financial Services Research, Vol. 11, Issue 1–2 (February 1997), pp. 189–204.

  5. Robert Rector and Rea S. Hederman, “Two Americas: One Rich, One Poor? Understanding Income Inequality in the United States,” Heritage Foundation Backgrounder, No. 1791 (August 24, 2004), pp. 7, 8.

  6. The number of people in the various quintiles in 2015 was computed by multiplying the number of “consumer units” in each quintile by the average number of people per consumer unit. See Table 1 in Veri Crain and Taylor J. Wilson, “Use with Caution: Interpreting Consumer Expenditure Income Group Data,” Beyond the Numbers (Washington: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 2017), p. 3.

  7. Ibid.

  8. Herman P. Miller, Income Distribution in the United States (Washington: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1966), p. 7.

  9. Rose M. Kreider and Diana B. Elliott, “America’s Family and Living Arrangements: 2007,” Current Population Reports, P20–561 (Washington: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2009), p. 5.

  10. W. Michael Cox and Richard Alm, “By Our Own Bootstraps: Economic Opportunity & the Dynamics of Income Distribution,” Annu
al Report, 1995, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, p. 8.

  11. Richard V. Reeves, “Stop Pretending You’re Not Rich,” New York Times, June 11, 2017, Sunday Review section, p. 5.

  12. Mark Robert Rank, Thomas A. Hirschl and Kirk A. Foster, Chasing the American Dream: Understanding What Shapes Our Fortunes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 105.

  13. U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Income Mobility in the U.S. from 1996 to 2005,” November 13, 2007, pp. 2, 4, 7.

  14. Ibid., pp. 2, 4; Internal Revenue Service, “The 400 Individual Income Tax Returns Reporting the Highest Adjusted Gross Incomes Each Year, 1992–2000,” Statistics of Income Bulletin, Spring 2003, Publication 1136 (Revised 6–03), p. 7.

  15. Heather Mac Donald, Are Cops Racist? How the War Against the Police Harms Black Americans (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003), pp. 28, 31, 32.

  16. Ibid., pp. 28–34.

  17. GROUPS: Black

  MEDIAN AGE: 33.2

  GROUPS: Cambodian

  MEDIAN AGE: 31.6

  GROUPS: Chinese

  MEDIAN AGE: 38.2

  GROUPS: Cuban

  MEDIAN AGE: 40.4

  GROUPS: Japanese

  MEDIAN AGE: 49.6

  GROUPS: Mexican

  MEDIAN AGE: 26.4

  GROUPS: Puerto Rican

  MEDIAN AGE: 29.0

  GROUPS: White

  MEDIAN AGE: 40.3

  GROUPS: TOTAL POPULATION

  MEDIAN AGE: 37.6

  Source: U.S. Census Bureau, B01002, Median Age by Sex, Universe: Total Population, 2011–2015 American Community Survey Selected Population Tables.

  18. Heather Mac Donald, Are Cops Racist?, p. 29.

  19. Heather Mac Donald, The War on Cops: How the New Attack on Law and Order Makes Everyone Less Safe (New York: Encounter Books, 2016), pp. 56–57, 69–71.

  20. Sterling A. Brown, A Son’s Return: Selected Essays of Sterling A. Brown, edited by Mark A. Sanders (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1996), p. 73.

  21. Mark Robert Rank, Thomas A. Hirschl and Kirk A. Foster, Chasing the American Dream, p. 97.